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These bioactivities not only provide mechanistic insights into the physiological relevance of collagen peptides but also serve as the foundation for their integration into functional foods targeting oxidative stress, hypertension, and metabolic disorders

with VIP (Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide), which has potent anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immune-modulating effects

K., Alanezi, A

Lactate further inhibits the antitumor activity of T cells by upregulating immune checkpoint molecules like PD-L1, providing an important metabolic basis for tumor immune escape through this multiple-action mechanism (86)

This process produces compounds that stimulate intestinal L-cells, the specialized cells responsible for releasing the GLP-1 hormone after meals