For example, research on skeletal muscle satellite cells demonstrated that He-Ne laser (632.8 nm) upregulates the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and downregulates the pro-apoptotic protein Bax, thereby stabilizing mitochondrial membrane potential, reducing cytochrome c release, and ultimately inhibiting caspase-3 activation (32, 33)
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NA generated by gut microbes is also able to maintain a local NAD + /NAM pool that can be a source of circulating NA even in the absence of dietary precursor administration 126,127
If disrupted, permeation of potentially noxious molecules and organisms from the intestinal lumen can result in a cascade of events including immune activation and inflammation, eventually triggering the development of intestinal and systemic diseases (Fig
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